Professor
Dean R&D
palok.aichniser.ac.in
+91-674-2494000 > 2133
Ph.D. (Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics)
Thesis topic: studied the role of bivalent magnesium ions on the mode of action of antitumor antibiotics, Mithramycin and Chromomycin.
PhD: Biophysics
PDF: Biophysics/Molecular Dynamics/Molecular Biology/LASER instrumentation
Scientist @ VIDO: Innate Mucosal Immunity
Faculty @ NISER:
@ NISER (since July 2009)
The Front Cover Art : "Reverse Biotransformation-Guided Annotation of Untargeted" (10.1021/acs.jproteome.6c00138) in Journal of Proteome Research by Smaroki S Rekha & Palok Aich.
Anil K Baidya & Palok Aich. Serum–cecal metabolome integration predicts gut microbial communities and reveals pathway-level host–microbe crosstalk under disease-induced dysbiosis. OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology (2026). in press.
De AJ, Upadhyaya B, Aich P. Phase-dependent Disruption of Microbiome-Metabolome Coordination Is Associated with Diet-Induced MASLD. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol (2026). doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00163.2026.
Smaroki Smruti Rekha and Palok Aich. Reverse Biotransformation-Guided Annotation of Untargeted MS/MS Features: A Computational Framework for Candidate Enzyme and Gene Hypothesis Generation. Journal of Proteome Research Article ASAP (2026). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jproteome.6c00138
Tanuja Mohanty, Anil Baidya, and Palok Aich. Microbial Metabolomic Signatures Reveal Underlying Phenotypic Divergence in Lean and Obese Mice with MASH under identical dietary stress. Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry (2026). https://doi.org/10.1021/jasms.6c00069
Rabmit Das, Pranavesh Mourouganad, and Palok Aich. Machine Learning Analysis of Serum Metabolomics for Multi-Disease Classification and Proteome–Metabolome Pathway Insights in T2D, IBD, and CRC. Journal of Proteome Research (2026) Article ASAP https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jproteome.5c01212
Das, Ankita, Rabmit Das, Arjoyeeta Das, and Palok Aich. Microbiome- Metabolome Signatures and Behavioral Alterations in a Progressive MPTP-induced Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease. Experimental Neurology 400, (2026): 115701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2026.115701
Snehanjali Puhan, Smaroki Smruti Rekha, Kartika Sahu, Tanuja Mohanty, Arka Jyoti De, Ankita Das, and Palok Aich. Visiting MASLD through the lens of sex, immunity, and microbial interactions. Discov Med 2, 236 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44337-025-00489-1
Panda, S.S., Pattnaik, T. & Aich, P. Antibiotic Cocktail: An Excellent Tool to Probe Physiology by Perturbing Gut Microbiota: A Mice Model. Curr Microbiol 82, 457 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-025-04409-5
Mukhopadhyay, S., Ulaganathan, N., Dumpuri, P., Aich, P. (2025). Integrative AI-Based Approaches to Connect the Multiome to Use Microbiome-Metabolome Interactive Outcome as Precision Medicine. In: Mandal, S. (eds) Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Cell and Genetic Engineering. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2952. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-4690-8_2
SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR DETERMINING MICROBIOME FROM HOST METABOLOME USING A MACHINE LEARNING MODEL. Patent # 552962 (Indian), EP4471790 (European), Patentee: 1. MicrobioTx Health Private Limited 2. National Institute of Science Education and Research. Inventor: Palok Aich
Microbiome Test Kit. Licence No: MFG/IVD/2024/000087 (Class B) Issued On: 30-SEP-2024. Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India (A translation of basic research). Inventor: Palok Aich
Nayak, Akankshya, Swati S. Panda, Isha Dwivedi, Shivani Meena, and Palok Aich. "Role of Gut Microbial-derived Metabolites and Other Select Agents on Adipocyte Browning." Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 737, (2024): 150518. Accessed August 17, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150518.
Importance of Microbial Diversity on Health: Perhaps the Best Tool to Intervene in Emerging and Continuing Diseases. Sohini Mukhopadhyay, Sunaina Sunaina, Tanuja Mohanty, Ankita Das, Arka Jyoti De, Isha Dwivedi, and Palok Aich. In Microbial Diversity in the Genomic Era: Functional Diversity and Community Analysis. SECOND EDITION (2024). Academic Press, Elsevier. Ed by Surajit Das and Hirak Ranjan Dash.
Panda, S. S., Behera, B., Ghosh, R., Bagh, B., & Aich, P. (2024). Antibiotic-induced adipose tissue browning in C57BL/6 mice: An association with the metabolic profile and the gut microbiota. Life Sciences, 340, 122473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122473
Role of oxidative stress, gut microbiota, and derived metabolites in the etiology and progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ankita Das, Arka Jyoti De, Tanuja Mohanty, and Palok Aich. Redox Experimental Medicine (2023), e230016. https://doi.org/10.1530/REM-23-0016
Uday Pandey, Subodh Tambat and Palok Aich. Postnatal 14D is the key window for mice intestinal development- An insight from age-dependent antibiotic-mediated gut microbial dysbiosis study. Advanced Biology 2023 (in press). DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202300089
Panda, S.S.; Nayak, A.; Shah, S.; Aich, P. A Systematic Review on the Association between Obesity and Mood Disorders and the Role of Gut Microbiota. Metabolites 2023,13,488. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/metabo13040488
Singh, Dhyanendra, Shalini Pandey, Arindam Ghosh, and Palok Aich. "Effects of Constant Darkness on Behaviour and Physiology of Male and Female Mice." European Journal of Neuroscience 57, no. 9 (2023): 1498-1515. Accessed April 28, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15972.
Singh, Dhyanendra, Abhilash Preetam Ambati, and Palok Aich. "Sex and Time: Important Variables for Understanding the Impact of Constant Darkness on Behavior, Brain, and Physiology." Neuroscience 519, (2023): 73-89. Accessed April 28, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.03.016..
Sohini Mukhopadhyay, Tanya Pattnaik, and Palok Aich. A deeper understanding of the gut microbiota of different human races in search of disease-specific microbial and metabolic biomarkers. Microenvironment & Microecology Research | 2022, Vol. 4 | Issue (4): No.18 https://doi.org/10.53388/MMR2022018
Mukhopadhyay, S., Ray, P. and Aich, P. A comparative analysis of gut microbial dysbiosis by select antibiotics and DSS to understand the effects of perturbation on the host immunity and metabolism. Life Sciences (2022), Volume 312, 1 January 2023, 121212 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121212
Chu, L.M., Karunanayake, C., Aich, P. et al. Association between liver enzymes and metabolic syndrome in Canadian adults: results from the Canadian health measures survey - cycles 3 &4. J Diabetes Metab Disord 21, 1699–1708 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40200-022-01124-x https://doi.org/10.1007/s40200-022-01124-x
Mukhopadhyay, S. and Aich, P. (2022). Cost-Effective Method for gDNA Isolation from the Cecal Content and High Yield Procedure for RNA Isolation from the Colonic Tissue of Mice. Bio-protocol 12(15): e4484. DOI: 10.21769/BioProtoc.4484.
Impact of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors on liver steatosis/fibrosis/inflammation and redox balance in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Francesco Bellanti, Aurelio Lo Buglio, Michał Dobrakowski, Aleksandra Kasperczyk, Sławomir Kasperczyk, Palok Aich, Shivaram P Singh, Gaetano Serviddio, Gianluigi Vendemiale. World J Gastroenterol 2022 July 14; 28(26): 3243-3257. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v28.i26.3243
Effects of starch-rich or fat-rich diets on metabolism, adiposity, and glycemia in immune-biased, C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Raktim Mukherjee, Shalini Pandey, Arindam Ghosh, and Palok Aich (2022). J Nutritional Biochemistry Volume 108,109086, ISSN 0955-2863, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2022.109086.
Postnatal intestinal mucosa and gut microbial composition develop hand in hand: A mouse study. Uday Pandey and Palok Aich. (in press, Biomedical Journal 2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bj.2022.03.004
Differential colitis susceptibility of Th1- and Th2-biased mice: A multi-omics approach. Sohini Mukhopadhyay, Subha Saha, Subhayan Chakraborty, Punit Prasad, Arindam Ghosh, Palok Aich. PLoS One. Published: March 9, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264400
Microbiota transplantation from younger to older mice could restore lost immunity to effectively clear salmonella infection in Th2-biased BALB/c mice, Salila Pradhan, Pratikshya Ray, Palok Aich, Life Sciences 2021, 120201, ISSN 0024-3205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2021.120201. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024320521011887)
Predictive Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disease in Adult Canadian Population. Punam Pahwa, Luan Chu, Chandima Karunanayake, Palok Aich, Markus Hecker, Anurag Saxena, Philip Griebel, Soumya Niyogi. Journal of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders 2021, 20(2):1199-1209. DOI: 10.1007/s40200-021-00842-y
The starch-rich diet causes lipidemia while the fat-rich diet induces visceral adiposity, meta-inflammation, and Insulin resistance differentially in immune-biased mouse strains. Raktim Mukherjee & Palok Aich. Food Biosciences 2021, 42, August 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101136 .
Effects of two potential probiotic Lactobacillus bacteria on adipogenesis in vitro. Dipanjan Guha, Raktim Mukherjee & Palok Aich. Life Sciences 2021, 278, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119538 . [equal contribution: DG & RM].
Vancomycin induced changes in host immunity and behavior: Comparative genomic and metagenomic analysis in C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Pratikshya Ray, Uday Pandey, Debasmita Das, and Palok Aich. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 2021, https://rdcu.be/ccWpM
Secretory clusterin promotes oral cancer cell survival via inhibiting apoptosis by activation of autophagy in Akt/mTOR/ULK1 dependent pathway. Prajna P. Naik, PhD; Debasna P. Panigrahi; Kewal K. Mahapatra; Srimanta Patra; Prakash P. Praharaj; Chandra S. Bhol; Sarbari Saha; Aditya K. Panda; Krupasindhu Panda; Subhankar Paul; Palok Aich; Samir K Patra, and Sujit K Bhutia. Life Sciences 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118722
Pratikshya Ray, Uday Pandey and Palok Aich. Comparative analysis of beneficial effects of Vancomycin treatment on Th1- and Th2-biased mice and the role of gut microbiota. J Applied Microbiology 2020,. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.14853
Dipanjan Guha, Raktim Mukherjee and Palok Aich. Macrophage plays important role in cortisol and serotonin-induced adipogenesis in vitro, In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Animal. 2020; doi:10.1007/s11626-020-00482-1 [equal contribution: DG & RM] [published online ahead of print, 2020 Aug 5].
Rinku Pramanick, Niranjan Mayadeo, Himangi Warke, Shahina Begum, Palok Aich, and Clara Aranha. Vaginal microbiota of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis and vulvovaginal candidiasis: Are they different from normal microbiota? Microbial Pathogenesis 2019, 134, 103599. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31212037
Dipanjan Guha, Arka Banerjee, Raktim Mukherjee, Biswaranjan Pradhan, Maria Peneva, Georgi Aleksandrov, Sujit Suklabaidya, Shantibhushan Senapati and Palok Aich. A Probiotic formulation containing Lactobacillus bulgaricus DWT1 inhibits tumor growth by activating pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages. Journal of Functional Foods 2019, 56, 232-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.03.030
J. Tomporowski, J.M. Heer, B. Allan, S. Gomis, P. Aich, Carbon nanotubes significantly enhance the biological activity of CpG ODN in chickens, International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2019, 561, 135-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.02.040
Naik, A., Pandey, U., Mukherjee, R., Mukhopadhyay, S., Chakraborty, S., Ghosh, A., Aich, P. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG reverses mortality in neonatal mice against Salmonella challenge. Toxicology Research (RSC) 2019, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TX00006B
Priyadarshini, S., Pradhan, B., Griebel, P., and Aich, P. Cortisol regulates immune and metabolic processes in murine adipocytes and macrophages through HTR2c and HTR5a serotonin receptors. ​Eur. J Cell Biol. 2018, 97(7), 483-492, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcb.2018.07.004
Priyadarshini, S., Pradhan, B., and Aich, P. Role of Murine macrophage in temporal regulation of cortisol and serotonin induced adipogenesis in pre-adipocytes when grown together. Biol Open 2018, http://bio.biologists.org/content/biolopen/7/8/bio034629.full.pdf?with-ds=yes
Pradhan, B., Guha, D., Naik, A. K., Banerjee, A., Tambat, S., Chawla, S., Senapati, S., and Aich, P. , Probiotics L. acidophilus and B. clausii Modulate Gut Microbiota in Th1- and Th2-Biased Mice to Ameliorate Salmonella Typhimurium-Induced Diarrhea. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins, 2018. DOI:10.1007/s12602-018-9436-5; https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12602-018-9436-5
Debakanta Mishra, Debakanta Mishra, Kaibalya R. Dash, Preetam Nath, Prasant K. Parida, Subhendu Panigrahi, Chittaranjan Khatua, Suryakant Parida, Sambit K. Behera, Shivaram P. Singh, Palok Aich. Temporal Trends in the Etiology of Chronic Liver Disease in Coastal Eastern Odisha, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology, Volume 7, Supplement 2, 2017, Page S93DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jceh.2017.05.168
Pradhan B, Guha D, Murmu KC, Sur A, Ray P, Das D, Aich P. Comparative efficacy analysis of anti-microbial peptides, LL-37 and indolicidin upon conjugation with CNT, in human monocytes. J Nanobiotechnology 15, 2017, 44 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28606090
Biswaranjan Pradhan, David A. Datzkiw and Palok Aich (2016). Gut 
microbiota and health: a review with focus on metabolic and immunological disorders and microbial remediation. Biomedical Reviews 27. 2016, 1-17. 
http://journals.mu-varna.bg/index.php/bmr/issue/view/171
Front cover: Change in healthy microbial composition leads to dysbiosis (red arrows) and is associated with obesity, diabetes, colorectal cancer, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and Clostridium difficile infections (CDI). Prebiotics, probiotics and fecal microbial transplantation (FMT) remediate microbial symbiosis (green arrows) and return the microbial composition to a healthy state. From the Review of Pradhan et al, Biomedical Reviews 27. 2016, 1-17. 
 http://journals.mu-varna.bg/index.php/bmr/issue/view/171
Biswaranjan Pradhan, Dipanjan Guha, Pratikshya Ray, Debashmita Das, and Palok Aich. Comparative Analysis of the Effects of Two Probiotic Bacterial Strains on Metabolism and Innate Immunity in the RAW 264.7 Murine Macrophage Cell Line. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2016: 1-12. 10.1007/s12602-016-9211-4 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12602-016-9211-4
Sushri Priyadarshini and Palok Aich. Understanding effects of Psychological Stress on physiology and disease through human stressome - An integral algorithm. Current Bioinformatics 2016, 11(2), 277- 290 https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cbio/2016/00000011/00000002/art00017
Shivaram Singh, Ayaskanta Singh, Debasis Misra, Bijay Misra, Girish Pati, Sanjib Kar, Manas Panigrahi, Pallavi Bhuyan, Kaumudi Pattnaik, Chudamani Meher, Omprakash Agrawal, Niranjan Rout, Palok Aich. Risk factors associated with the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Indians: A case-control study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology 2015, 5(4), 295-302 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26900270
Abhinav Sur, Biswaranjan Pradhan, Arka Banerjee & Palok Aich. (2015) Immune activation efficacy of indolicidin is enhanced upon conjugation with carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles. PLoS One 10 e0123905. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4398554/
P. Sood, S. Priyadarshini & P. Aich. Estimation of Psychological Stress in Humans: A Combination of Theory and Practice. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e63044.). http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0063044
S. Priyadarshini and P. Aich. Effects of psychological stress on innate immunity and metabolism in humans: a systematic analysis. PLoS One 2012, 7: e43232 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3446986/
Paul D Hodgson, Palok Aich, Joseph Stookey, Yurij Popowych, Andrew Potter, Lorne Babiuk, and Philip J Griebel. Stress significantly increases mortality following a secondary bacterial respiratory infection. Veterinary Research 2012, 43, 21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3348069/
P. Sood P, S. Priyadarshini, P. Aich. Psychological stressors as interventions: Good out of the evil. Front Biosci (Schol Ed) 2012, 4: 43-60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22202042
B. Kumar, A. Manuja, P. Aich. Stress and its impact on farm animals.Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 2012, 4: 1759-1767. https://www.bioscience.org/2012/v4e/af/496/fulltext.htm
A. Dwivedy and P. Aich. Importance of Innate Mucosal Immunity and promises it holds. International Journal of General Medicine 2011. 4, pp:299-311 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3085239/
Alison Thompson, Elaine Van Moorlehem, and P. Aich. Probiotic-Induced Priming of Innate Immunity to Protect Against Rotaviral Infection. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins 2010: Volume 2, Issue 2, Page 90 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12602-009-9032-9
For complete publications, please click here
Palok Aich on ResearchGate (Click here)
Overview
Prof. Palok Aich works at the intersection of biophysics, immunology, and microbiome science, connecting fundamental discovery with practical applications in health and disease. Trained in biophysics and molecular biology (Ph.D., Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics), with senior research and leadership experience in Canada before joining NISER in 2009, he integrates multi-omics technologies, AI/ML analytics, organoid and animal models, and human studies to understand how the gut microbiome shapes host metabolism, inflammation, and neuro-immunological health.
Research Areas
The Aich Lab investigates the relationship between the gut microbiome, host metabolism, immunity, and brain health. Current programs:
Map the gut-adipose-liver-brain axis and its role in health and disease.
Identify microbial and host-derived metabolites that regulate systemic immunity and metabolic balance.
Study complex disorders including type 2 diabetes, obesity, NAFLD, IBD, and neurodegeneration, alongside psychological-stress physiology and innate mucosal immunity.
New: Healthy aging and longevity: evaluate a triple-stack therapy in organoid and mouse models to promote healthy aging and extend healthspan.
Apply AI/ML methods, regression, uni- and multivariate statistics, clustering, and network modeling, to map microbiome-metabolome relationships and enable predictive, personalized medicine.
Innovations & Impact
Gut Function Test (GFT): Invented the world's first non-invasive test that predicts gut microbiome composition from blood metabolites, removing the need for stool-based diagnostics. The GFT is patented, approved by CDSCO (India), and commercialized through the spin-off MicrobioTx Health, which also delivers personalized probiotics.
M-DNA: Discovered and patented a conductive form of DNA created by doping with transition-metal ions, advancing the concept of molecular wires in nanoelectronics.
Translational public health: Bridges basic science and application across personalized medicine and public health, attracting both academic and industry collaborations and fostering entrepreneurship among early-career researchers.
Selected Findings
Microbial metabolites drive metabolism. Specific gut-derived metabolites induce browning of adipose tissue ("beige fat") in mice, increasing lipid metabolism and the expression of beige-fat genes, effects comparable to or exceeding known browning agents, pointing to microbiome-targeted strategies against obesity and metabolic syndrome.
Diet and antibiotics reshape the microbiome. High-starch diets increased beneficial diversity (notably Verrucomicrobia) and improved adiposity and glycemic control, whereas fat-rich diets favored Proteobacteria, reduced Bacteroidetes, and worsened metabolic health. Shifts in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio track with obesity and metabolic syndrome.
SCFAs and dysbiosis. Microbiome disruption lowers beneficial short-chain fatty acids, altering host metabolism and immunity and contributing to type 2 diabetes, NAFLD, and obesity.
Early-life window. A critical postnatal window (~day 14 in mice) links gut microbial shifts to intestinal barrier function and immune development, shaping later metabolic susceptibility.
Precision probiotics. Tailored formulations targeting dysbiosis produced significant weight loss and improved insulin sensitivity in metabolic-syndrome models, demonstrating real-world translational potential.
Career Background
Prof. Aich earned his Ph.D. in Biophysics from the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, studying antitumor antibiotic (mithramycin, chromomycin)–DNA interactions and the role of magnesium ions. Postdoctoral work at Stockholm University and the Karolinska Institutet addressed higher-order DNA structures using 2D NMR and circular dichroism, and contributed to developing Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy in the ultraviolet region for single-molecule DNA studies. At the University of Saskatchewan (Canada), he investigated higher-order DNA structures in oncogenes and co-discovered M-DNA, leading to the founding of the company ADNAVANCE. As a Scientist and Principal Investigator at VIDO (now VIDO-InterVac), he built programs in innate mucosal immunity, including how psychological stress affects host–pathogen interactions in bovine and chicken models and nanotechnology-based immune stimulators, and, as adjunct/associate faculty, taught systems biology, physiological genomics, and bioinformatics. He joined NISER in 2009.
Media Coverage
Work from the lab has been widely covered, including by BioVoiceNews, OnlyMyHealth, BioSpectrum, NuFFooDS Spectrum, DBT-ILS, Nextedge, ANI, and NEWSVOIR.
Current members
Past members
At NISER:
Systems Biology (BE1), Biophysics & Biostatistics (B203),
Science of Life (I & II) (B101 & 102)
Quantitative & Systems Biology (B407 (now), earlier B558/B758, the course was planned and designed by me) and laboratory courses
Chemical Biology (B457/B657, the course was planned and designed by me)
At UofS
Basic Techniques in Life Science
Bioinformatics
Physiological Genomics
Systems Biology
At Karolinska Institutet
Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS)
Currently, the Dean (Research & Development), NISER
Director, a) NISER Homi Bhabha Foundation and b) MicrobioTx Health.
Besides my regular academic (teaching and research) activities, I executed various administrative responsibilities as follows
4. Second Chairman
